1941–1950 In 1941, the Educational and Pedagogical Publishing House of the USSR released the textbook "History of the USSR" for secondary schools. At the time of printing, the Great Patriotic War had not yet begun, but one of the final sections was already titled: "The USSR's Struggle for Peace in the Conditions of the Second Imperialist War." The paragraph is built around the idea that the Soviet Union sought peace and justice amid the impending global catastrophe. The authors emphasized that the USSR's foreign policy was based on principles of non-aggression, good neighborliness, and respect for borders. The words "peace," "peaceful," and "peace-loving" appear in the text 18 times. The non-aggression pact with the Third Reich was explained as a forced measure: the USSR allegedly gained time to prepare for a possible German attack. Before that, according to the authors, negotiations with England and France had failed. The blame was placed on "hostile reactionary circles of English and French imperialists," who, according to the compilers, sought to drag the USSR into the war. The USSR's military actions in Poland in the fall of 1939 are described as a situation in which the Soviet government could not silently watch the fate of the oppressed "blood brothers"—Ukrainians and Belarusians living on Polish territory. The entry of the Red Army is portrayed as the protection of the lives and property of the peaceful population. Soon after, elections were held in Western Ukraine and Western Belarus for deputies to the People's Assemblies, which then advocated joining the USSR. Historian and human rights activist Igor Sajin called school textbooks an ideological tool designed to help create "convenient" citizens. Just as the authorities have a demand for a "convenient" person, citizens have demands on politicians—for peace, strength, and quick problem-solving: "The question is only who was more peace-loving and who, with all their might, ordered war and turned all those who loved peace into victims. Pulling the blanket over oneself is a general political stance, a way to explain to the population why we are victims, and they [Germany] crave war." Historians Anna Pankratova and Sergey Bakhrushin, while in evacuation in Tashkent in 1942, wrote a methodological guide "Teaching History in the Conditions of the Great Patriotic War." It was published in the Uzbek SSR. The publication passed censorship by the People's Commissariat of Education and the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and could be used in all republics. The main task of the USSR in 1941–1945, according to the guide, was the unification of the people for the victory over the German army and the establishment of peace. Teachers were advised to instill Soviet patriotism and confidence in victory in students. Youth was presented as a "fighting force and a powerful reserve of the Red Army." The goal of Germany's attack on the USSR, according to historians, was the expansion of Slavic territories and the transformation of Slavs into slaves of the Third Reich. Teachers were to tell in detail about commanders Suvorov and Kutuzov, as well as about Suvorov's principles in the Red Army. Failures in the war were recommended to be interpreted as a factor that united the people and turned the country into a "single combat camp." Special attention in the guide was given to the role of Joseph Stalin, whose name was to be associated with the "victory over German fascism." 1950–1956 Authored by the scholars who created the "History of the USSR" in 1941, a history textbook for the 10th grade was published in 1952. In the new edition, the authors attributed a key role in the victory over Germany to Stalin. According to them, without him, the USSR would have lost the war. The authors also frequently quoted the General Secretary's speeches from November 1941, which inspired the army and people to feats. Stalin's quotes are presented in sections about the Battle of Stalingrad, the Battle of Moscow, and the defense of Odessa. Germany's attack is described as "treacherous and sudden." However, it is immediately added that Stalin did not rule out the start of the war and called on the country to be ready. There is nothing in the textbook about the USSR's defeats in 1941–1942. Instead, it is said that the Red Army "stubbornly defended every inch of Soviet land." The authors did not mention losses and occupied territories—only spoke about settlements that were liberated by the end of 1942. The authors remained silent about the blockade of Leningrad in the first year of the war but described its breakthrough in 1944 in detail. They characterized the Battle of Stalingrad with Stalin's words as an "unprecedented battle in history," emphasizing that the Wehrmacht's losses were three times greater than those of the Red Army. The Holocaust is not mentioned in the textbook at all. Instead, it speaks of "aggression against the entire Soviet people." Historian and human rights activist Igor Sajin believes this was done intentionally to erase the Jewish tragedy from collective memory. The object of the Nazis' hatred was portrayed as the entire population of the USSR: "[The use of the term 'Soviet people' in the context of genocide] is a political order to mobilize the population and rally it around the authorities, that is, Stalin." 1956–1964 After the denunciation of the cult of personality in 1956, praises of Stalin disappeared from textbooks. In Isaac Mints' 1962 textbook, Stalin is mentioned only once—in the context of mistakes made at the beginning of the war. The authors no longer called the Third Reich's attack "sudden." They wrote that the Soviet leadership realized the inevitability of war but did not have time to prepare. The main miscalculation, in their opinion, was Stalin's incorrect assessment of the situation. If before 1956, textbook authors admired Stalin's quotes, then in the 1960s, they added a small mention of Nikita Khrushchev, who congratulated the defenders of Stalingrad after the battle. "It was necessary to introduce an important element of criticism to discredit the previous leadership and make Khrushchev look good against this background. And it was necessary to highlight certain negative traits [in Stalin's rule]. This also applies to the war—in its history, accents had to be placed," explained Igor Sajin. The 1962 textbook included a subsection on the lessons of the war. In it, the authors contrasted the Soviet regime with the democratic one. In their opinion, the Soviet socialist system helped defeat Hitler's army, while the alliances of capitalist countries were concluded "for wars and the division of territories." "The 'lessons of the war' in the school manual are a sign of the then-deteriorating relations between the USSR and European countries and the USA," said Igor Sajin. The peak of the Cold War occurred in 1955–1962. The Soviet Union aggressively criticized the West and sought enemies. 1964–1985 In 1965, Ilya Berkhin, along with co-authors Maxim Kim and Mikhail Belenky, published a new Soviet history textbook that expanded the narrative of the Great Patriotic War. While primarily focused on domestic history, the textbook included a section on international events preceding the 1939–1945 war, notably mentioning the USSR's dispatch of hundreds of volunteers to Spain in the 1930s to fight in international brigades against the German-Italian army. The chapter on the Great Patriotic War comprised nine paragraphs—four more than in the 1962 textbook by Isaac Mints. Compared to earlier editions, the authors provided more detailed accounts of the home front, the Battle of Kursk, the Battle of Moscow, and the partisan movement. They also acknowledged the sacrifices made by Soviet citizens for peace and security. Historian Igor Sajin noted that placing the war within a broader international context was intended to highlight the USSR's role in global politics. According to him, the authors aimed to portray the Soviet Union as a global leader and the Soviet people as a nation engaged in solving world problems, not merely defending their territory. He explained: "Victory indicates that we [the USSR] stood on the side of truth. A vast number of people doubted—are we on the right path, are our ideas correct? The only answer to these questions is success. In this case, success meant victory in the war, which needed to be emphasized to citizens to show that we [the USSR] were on the right path." 1985-1990 For the first time, it provided a detailed account of the Great Patriotic War, its causes, and the USSR's early setbacks. The textbook offered significantly more information than previous editions. The authors criticized Stalin, addressing issues from the repressions—mentioned in the context of the war for the first time—to his decision to become the Supreme Commander of the Red Army. The USSR's failures were attributed to resource shortages caused by mass repressions, exiles, weak leadership, and complete centralization of power. Historians cited Commander Alexander Gorbatov as an example, describing him as a victim of the system. He endured repressions and torture by the NKVD but, according to the authors, proposed to Marshal Zhukov a successful offensive strategy in Belarus — attacking a weakly defended section of the German line. The textbook also introduced information about Lend-Lease — the military and economic aid from the United States. The authors detailed the volumes of weaponry, raw materials, and funds provided, moving beyond the vague references of earlier texts. Additionally, the textbook highlighted cultural life during the war and its significance for Soviet citizens. Despite acknowledging the Allies' assistance, the authors primarily credited the Soviet people's efforts for the victory. They described the lifting of the Leningrad blockade as a courageous feat and portrayed the residents of Leningrad as heroes. The tone toward the West shifted from accusatory to more neutral, though the Allies were still referred to as the "bourgeoisie." Igor Sajin viewed the mention of repressions in the textbook as a means to unite the people during perestroika. He believed the idea was to highlight the positive aspects of the Communist Party's course while condemning the mistakes of individual leaders. He stated: "There was no goal to destroy the USSR during perestroika. Therefore, in all defeats, one had to look for the repressive trail, the mustache and boots of Stalin. 'If not for Stalin, everything would have been much better' — that was the intended message." According to the historian, recalling Lend-Lease in the textbook and condemning repressions was an effective tactic to shape public opinion about the benevolent and helpful West and the "bad" Stalin. 1991-2000 Unlike the perestroika-era materials, this textbook did not link the Red Army's failures to repressions. Instead, the narrative of the war was constructed around detailed descriptions of each battle and tactical maneuvers: who issued orders, the positions of armies, the amount of equipment used, and the distances advanced or retreated by troops. Special attention was given to military culture, music, and the partisan movement. Danilov attributed the army's unpreparedness for the Wehrmacht's attack to Stalin's misjudgment. Stalin had convinced himself that Germany would only attack after dealing with England, no earlier than 1942. Historian Igor Sajin commented that with the change in political course, the state needed to provide citizens with a new understanding of the war and the country's past. To explain the USSR's collapse and the flaws of the communist system, history in textbooks was presented differently, with condemnation of Soviet authority. Students were taught that the communist system was alien to Russia, and the early war failures were due to the country's erroneous course. He remarked: "The detailed description of military tactics is a trend of emulating Western textbooks, which analyze tactics very thoroughly. The state wanted the textbook to cultivate new democratic and 'market-oriented' citizens for the new Russia." 2001-2012 The new version featured a reduced chapter on the Great Patriotic War—shrinking to 17 pages. Descriptions of battles and early war failures were condensed into a single paragraph outlining the causes. Mentions of traitors who joined the Reich's side were introduced. According to the authors, "traitors" of the USSR included Ukrainians, Crimean Tatars, Chechens, Ingush, Karachays, Balkars, and other indigenous peoples of the Union. Although some individuals collaborated with the Germans, the Soviet authorities accused entire ethnic groups of treason based on the actions of a few. As punishment, the USSR deported entire ethnicities from national republics to other parts of the Union. Igor Sajin explained that in the early 2000s, ethnic and religious identity served as a mechanism to unite the people against a new threat — the war in Chechnya. To justify resistance against Chechens fighting for their republic's independence, historians in the 2000s recalled the "betrayal" of the Chechen people during the Great Patriotic War: "In history, they began to search for the roots of separatism and found them. It was necessary to teach the new generation of Russian citizens how to resist this [separatism]." 2012-2022 The Battle of Stalingrad received just over one page. The new textbook included more information about the defense of Crimea than the 2003 edition. For the first time, a question appeared under the paragraphs: why did the Soviet army fail in Crimea and near Kharkov? Igor Sajin explained: "Current geography became the most important factor in determining which aspects to emphasize in the history textbook. The focus was on remembering the blood shed for Crimea when drawing conclusions about the present day." Another update in the reissued textbook was the mention of genocide. The Holocaust was given only one paragraph, but the authors explicitly stated who its victims were—Jews, rather than the generalized "Soviet people" used in earlier texts. 2022-2025 The authors added chapters on the contemporary war in Ukraine and altered the narrative of the Great Patriotic War. According to the text, the Nazis did not control the population in the occupied territories of the USSR themselves but enlisted local residents who were willing to collaborate with the Third Reich's army. For instance, the German authorities "facilitated the creation in the western regions of the so-called Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) — armed gangs of Ukrainian nationalists." In describing the partisan movement, the textbook discusses Nikolai Kuznetsov, who killed "11 generals and high-ranking officials" of the Reichskommissariat Ukraine and died "in battle with Banderites." The textbook's account of the Holocaust reverted to discussing the genocide of the entire "Soviet people." The authors wrote: "The genocide of the peaceful population of the Soviet Union was carried out through the establishment of hundreds of concentration camps." Medinsky's textbook reinstated approval of the USSR's course and Stalin's policies during the war into the school curriculum. One paragraph is dedicated to the "ten Stalinist strikes" — the USSR's major offensive operations. | 
